Adventure therapy seems to be a growing field and more programs are now becoming available to different populations all around the world. With the increase of programs available, employers are often looking at the different personality traits for the staff to succeed and avoid burnouts. With the recent discovery of the benefits brought on by adventure therapy, the research may be scarce but important. The personality traits of those attending such programs would also be important as it will help therapists determine whether this type of therapy will be a good fit or not for the individuals. Without proper traits, adventure therapy could lead to burnouts quicker which then lead to a higher cost for the program as it needs to hire and train a new individual. This is the case with a trait such as neuroticism (Bishoff, D., 2013). This literature review will look at articles found on databases from two different universities. This article will look at different disciplines such as sociology, psychology, adventure, and economics although this discipline has not been thoroughly researched yet.
The use of sociology in this topic can help explain the way individuals act with their families before and after treatment. It can also be used to explore the way in which group therapy can help individuals. In the article written by Gelkopf, it has been found that talking in groups has helped individuals struggling from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Gelkopf, M. 2013). It has helped individuals with support from other individuals when it came attending appointments or opening up about certain feelings. In a study by Bettmann, individuals seemed to be more open to receiving and speaking with health care professionals which is a big advancement for Veterans (Bettmann, J., 2018).
The use of psychology for a topic such as adventure therapy is important because individuals attending such programs are often diagnosed with mental health problems, substance abuse, or at-risk youth. Every study I have read so far has utilized at least one questionnaire looking at some self-reported data from both staff and participants (Bettmann, J., 2012; Bettmann, J., 2018; Bishoff, D., 2013; Easley, T., 1985; Gass, M., 1990; Gelkopf, M., 2013; Loveland, J., 2005; Roberts, S., 2016; Russell, K., 2017; Russell, K., 1999; Turnis, B., 2015; Voruganti, L., 2006). A few of the studies also include things such as interviews or observations (Gelkopf, M., 2012; Russell, K., 1999; Voruganti, L., 2006) in addition to the questionnaires. In order to understand the questionnaires and make sense of the interviews and answers found in the observations, a basic understanding of the way individuals think, and act would be needed.
The use of adventure in the topic of adventure therapy is essential to see how individuals react to certain activities. It is important to see which activity is appropriate for the demographic being worked with. In the article by Gass, table 1 looks at all the activities used in sixty-one different programs in the United States (Gass, M., 1990).
A discipline I have yet to look deeply into would be economics. It would be important to understand how accessible these programs are for individuals who may be on a restricted income. It would also be important to understand what type of financial help is out there for individuals who are unable to afford the therapy. In the article from Gass, the costs associated with the service provided form the staff were included in the cost of the program. Only a total of seventy-six percent of the programs received any funding from a third party such as the government, medical insurance, or county services (Gass, M., 1990). More research would need to be done in this discipline in order to determine whether this is considered to be important when searching for types of therapies best suited to an individual.
One of the themes found in many of the articles used for research would be the lack of research. This affects the subject as a whole because it limits the definition of adventure therapy, knowledge about how the field truly works as well as the ability to meta-analysis of the subject. The definition of adventure therapy seems to be changing in each article read which can create a problem when trying to truly define it.
Although the definition may not be set in stone, the improvements seen from adventure therapy are often positive and significant. The improvements are often looked at a few months to a year after the program has ended and the improvements are often the same as when the program ended, or individuals use the skills they learned to help them cope.
Staff with traits such as empathy, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are often the ones found in these types of field. These traits have been found to be helpful in fields working with youth and individuals who may have mental health issues. Burnouts are a very big aspect of adventure therapy. It was shown that individuals whom have the above traits are less likely to have burnouts (Bishoff, D., 2013; Easley, T., 1985; Loveland, J., 2005; Turnis, B. 2015).
Every study looked at so far has included some type of survey or questionnaire for the participants or the staff to fill out. They are often administered before, during, and after the program is over. Occasionally they are also administered a year or so after the program has ended. Those questionnaires are self-reported for both the participants and the staff. Additional questionnaires are filled out by participants in regard to the staff that worked with them. Depending if the researcher is looking to get qualitative answers, they may do interviews with the participants or staff (Bettmann, J., 2012; Bettmann, J., 2018; Bishoff, D., 2013; Easley, T., 1985; Gass, M., 1990; Gelkopf, M., 2013; Loveland, J., 2005; Roberts, S., 2016; Russell, K., 2017; Russell, K., 1999; Turnis, B., 2015; Voruganti, L., 2006). A few of the studies also include things such as interviews or observations (Gelkopf, M., 2012; Russell, K., 1999; Voruganti, L., 2006).
Some of the limitations found in the articles often include sample size. The sample used is often very small. The sample also often only looks at a certain place which then brings a limitation on the diversity of the sample. Most samples include Caucasian males (Bettmann, J., 2012; Bettmann, J., 2018; Bishoff, D., 2013; Easley, T., 1985; Gass, M., 1990; Gelkopf, M., 2013; Loveland, J., 2005; Roberts, S., 2016; Russell, K., 2017; Russell, K., 1999; Turnis, B., 2015; Voruganti, L., 2006). A few of the studies also include things such as interviews or observations (Gelkopf, M., 2012; Russell, K., 1999; Voruganti, L., 2006). Another limitation that can be found in most studies would be that the questionnaires are self-reported only. Some individuals may not be comfortable answering certain questions or they may not want to answer truthfully.
For future studies, the questionnaires should be looked at from both the participants but also family or close relatives. They should also be filled out by the staff during and after the programs in order to track the amount of improvements seen in the individuals. The sample of the studies should also include a higher number of individuals as well as a bigger area of study. Individuals should be recruited from different programs in different provinces, states, or countries. Individuals could also be followed for a longer period of time after the program has finished.
It would be very interesting to target which personality traits the participants who succeed best in this type of therapy have when they first come into the program. This could help determine whether this therapy is a good alternative for them since many different techniques exist. It would also be interesting to see which element of the adventure therapy seem to be more successful with certain traits in individuals and if this aspect truly matters.
References
Bettmann, J., Russell, K., & Perry, K. (2012, October 04). How Substance Abuse Recovery Skills, Readiness to Change and Symptom Reduction Impact Change Processes in Wilderness Therapy Participants. Springer, (22), 1039-1050. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10826-012-9665-2.pdf DOI 10.1007/s10826-012-9665-2
Bettmann, J. E., Scheinfeld, D. E., Prince, K. C., Garland, E. L., & Ovrom, K. V. (2018). Changes in psychiatric symptoms and psychological processes among veterans participating in a therapeutic adventure program. Psychological Services, http://dx.doi.org.librweb.laurentian.ca/10.1037/ser0000213 Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.librweb.laurentian.ca/docview/1999311008?accountid=12005
Bishoff, D., (2013) Personality and Performance: An Examination of Relationships Between Personality, Character Traits, and Performance Among Wilderness Field Guides. All Theses and Dissertations. 3622. Retrieved from https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/3622
Easley, T., (1985) The Personality Traits of Wilderness Leadership Instructors at NOLS: the Relationship to Perceived Instructor Effectiveness and the Development of Self-Concept in Students.
Gass, M. A., & Mcphee, P. J. (1990). Emerging for Recovery: A Descriptive Analysis of Adventure Therapy for Substance Abusers. Journal of Experiential Education,13(2), 29-35. doi:10.1177/105382599001300206
Gelkopf, M., Hasson-Ohayon, I., Bikman, M., & Kravetz, S. (2013). Nature adventure rehabilitation for combat-related posttraumatic chronic stress disorder: A randomized control trial. Psychiatry Research,209, 485-493. doi:10.1107/s0108768104030617/bs5012sup1.cif
Loveland, J., Gibson, L., Lounsbury, J., Huffstetler, B., (2005) Broad and Narrow Personality Traits in Relation to the Job Performance of Camp Counselors. Child & Youth Care Forum, 34(3): 241-254. doi: 10.1007/s10566-005-3471-6
Roberts, S. D., Stroud, D., Hoag, M. J., & Combs, K. M. (2016). Outdoor Behavioral Health Care. Journal of Experiential Education,39(3), 288-302. doi:10.1177/1053825916655445
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L. (., & Kivlighan, D. M., Jr. (2017). Process factors explaining psycho-social outcomes in adventure therapy. Psychotherapy, 54(3), 273-280. http://dx.doi.org.librweb.laurentian.ca/10.1037/pst0000131 Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.librweb.laurentian.ca/docview/1940533256?accountid=12005
Russell, K. C., Hendee, J. C., and Phillips-Miller, D. (1999). How Wilderness Therapy Works: An Examination of the Wilderness Therapy Process to Treat Adolescents with Behavioral Problems and Addictions. In: Cole, D. N.; McCool, S. F. 2000. Proceedings: Wilderness Science in a Time of Change. Proc. RMRS-P-000. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Retrieved from http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/wrc/publications/montana1.pdf
Turnis, B. (2015). An exploration of collegiate outdoor recreation professionals’ personality traits and job task affect. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com.librweb.laurentian.ca/docview/1694582373?accountid=12005
Voruganti, L. N., Whatham, J., Bard, E., Parker, G., Babbey, C., Ryan, J., . . . Maccrimmon, D. J. (2006). Going Beyond: An Adventure- and Recreation-Based Group Intervention Promotes Well-Being and Weight Loss in Schizophrenia. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,51(9), 575-580. doi:10.1177/070674370605100905